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Part II:
Status of Research-Based Programs
Programs Beginning When Children are in Middle and/or High School
IV. Adventure Education and Outward Bound: A Meta-Analysis by John Hattie and Colleagues
The following review was written by Benard and is reprinted here with her permission.
This meta-analysis was based on 1,728 effect sizes drawn from 151 unique samples from 96 studies of out-of-school adventure programs around the world. This study involved 12,057 unique participants of whom 72% were male and 28% female, ranging in age from 11 to 42 years. These programs usually involve small groups of students, young and old, who are transported to the wilderness and assigned challenging tasks such as mastering a river rapid or hiking to a remote point. The largest is Outward Bound, a private, nonprofit group serving more than 40,000 students worldwide each year.
Overall, the researchers found students made gains on 40 different outcomes, which they categorized into six major categories:
- Leadership. Conscientiousness, decision making, teamwork,
organizational ability, time management, values, and goals
- Self-concept. Physical ability, peer relations, general self, physical appearance, academic confidence (mathematics, reading, GPA, problem solving), self-efficacy, self-control, family and self understanding
- Personality. Femininity, masculinity, achievement motivation, emotional stability, control of aggression, assertiveness, locus of control, maturity,and neurosis reduction
- Interpersonal skills. Cooperation, communication, social competence, behavior, relating skills, and decreases in recidivism
- Adventurousness. Taking on challenges, flexibility, physical fitness, environmental awareness.
A key finding of this study is that the students' gains increased over time, sometimes months after participants completed the 20- to 26-day programs. This contrasts sharply to most educational interventions in which program effects fade after the program terminates. A theme underlying the outcomes with the greatest effects related to self-control; the authors conclude that "adventure programs appear to be most effective at providing participants with a sense of self-regulation" (Hattie, et al., 1997, p. 70).
The researchers believe that adventure programs have positive effects for four main reasons:
- The intensity of the immediate experience allows the participant full involvement in the activity.
- The challenge and specific goals direct attention and effort.
- The large amount and quality of feedback is vital to the experiential learning process: "Feedback is the most powerful single moderator that improves affective and achievement outcomes."
- Mutual group support provides opportunities in which to reflect, dialog, and act, as well as to cope with and understand one's world (Hattie et al., 1997, p. 75).
Finally, the researchers warn that "adventure programs are not inherently good. There is a great deal of variability in outcomes between different studies, different programs, and different individuals" (Hattie, et al., p. 77).
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